Abstract:
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have become an integral part of modern biotechnology. However, their increasing use has sparked complex debates. The controversy pertains to balancing the benefits of biotechnological improvements against potential risks to biodiversity and public health. The current study aims to critically evaluate the legal texts related to accountability and civil liability for damages caused by GMOs. It seeks to assess the adequacy of UAE legislation in establishing effective mechanisms for liability and compensation for environmental and health impacts, thus answering the central question to what extent does the current UAE law enhance accountability compared to international standards. It employs a descriptive-analytical and comparative legal approach based on the analysis and critique of relevant international and UAE legal documents. The findings reveal that the UAE has established an advanced regulatory system aligned with international standards; however, significant legal gaps remain in definitional clarity, sanctions framework, liability rules, and enforcement provisions. The study concludes with a synthesis table and figure mapping points of convergence and difference between national and international instruments. The study recommends further development of the rules related to compensation and penalties to ensure appropriate legal deterrence for GMO-related harm and calls for legislative amendments that enhance the clarity of texts and their integration with international frameworks.
References
AbdUl-Rahman Salem, ‘Civil Liability for Damage Resulting from Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): A Comparative Study’, UAEU Law Journal, 83 (2020) https://scholarworks.uaeu.ac.ae/sharia_and_law/vol2020/iss83/8
Abou Adel, Mohammad, Mohammad Al-Qudah, and Rawan Al-Sharif, ‘Unsettling the Norm: A Posthumanist Reading of Sameness and Differences in Kathryn Erskine’s Mockingbird’, Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 15.11 (2025) https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1511.03
Adler, Jonathan H., ‘The Cartagena Protocol and Biological Diversity: Biosafe or Bio-Sorry?’, SSRN Electronic Journal, 2000 https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.227644
AgBioInvestor, Global GM Crop Area Report, 2024 https://gm.agbioinvestor.com/downloads/9
Ampadu-Ameyaw, Richard, George Owusu Essegbey, and Eric Okoree Amaning, ‘Public Awareness, Participation and Attitude toward the National Biosafety Framework and Genetically Modified Organisms in Ghana’, Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity, 3.2 (2021), 147–53 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2021.10.003
Ashrafi Tafreshi, Fatemeh, Zahra Fatahi, Seyedeh Fatemeh Ghasemi, Amirali Taherian, and Neda Esfandiari, ‘Ultrasensitive Fluorescent Detection of Pesticides in Real Sample by Using Green Carbon Dots’, ed. by Sabato D’Auria, PLOS ONE, 15.3 (2020), e0230646 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230646
Babar, Usman, and Ruqiang Xu, ‘Agricultural Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) Regulation in China’, in GMOs and Political Stance (Elsevier, 2023), pp. 53–74 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823903-2.00009-3
Batool, Zakia, Qurat ul Ain, and Abdul Rehman, ‘Exploring the Effects of Farm Mechanization, Financial Development, and Renewable Energy on China’s Food Production’, Environment, Development and Sustainability, 26.7 (2023), 18883–902 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03419-2
Beck, Felix, ‘Titelei/Inhaltsverzeichnis’, in Self-Spreading Biotechnology and International Law (Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG, 2022), pp. 1–44 https://doi.org/10.5771/9783748913528-1
Brookes, Graham, ‘Genetically Modified (GM) Crop Use 1996–2020: Impacts on Carbon Emissions’, GM Crops & Food, 13.1 (2022), 242–61 https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2022.2118495
Buiatti, M., P. Christou, and G. Pastore, ‘The Application of GMOs in Agriculture and in Food Production for a Better Nutrition: Two Different Scientific Points of View’, Genes & Nutrition, 8.3 (2013), 255–70 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12263-012-0316-4
Burachik, PhD, Moisés, ‘GMOs in Argentina’, in Genetically Modified and Irradiated Food (Elsevier, 2020), pp. 151–71 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817240-7.00009-7
Burcu Bostanci Ozgul and Ozgul Yilmaz-Tuzun, ‘National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST)’, in Relationships Between Middle School Students’ Epistemological Beliefs and Argumentation Quality in Genetically Modified Organisms (United States of America)
Cebadera Miranda, Elena, Ma Victoria Castillo Ruiz-Cabello, and Montaña Cámara Hurtado, ‘Food Biopharmaceuticals as Part of a Sustainable Bioeconomy: Edible Vaccines Case Study’, New Biotechnology, 59 (2020), 74–79 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbt.2020.06.005
Chege, Paul, Julia Njagi, John Komen, Godfrey Ngure, John Muriuki, and Margaret Karembu, ‘Best Practices for Acceptability of GM Crops Field Trials Conclusions: Lessons for Africa’, GM Crops & Food, 15.1 (2024), 222–32 https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2024.2376415
Cheng, Xingru, Haohui Li, Qiaoling Tang, Haiwen Zhang, Tao Liu, and Youhua Wang, ‘Trends in the Global Commercialization of Genetically Modified Crops in 2023’, Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 23.12 (2024), 3943–52 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jia.2024.09.012
Chunyi Liu, ‘Liability for Transboundary Damage of Genetically Modified Organisms: Existing Patterns and Application’, Beijing Law Review, 12 (2021), 16–26 https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=107036
Clapp, Jennifer, ‘Unplanned Exposure to Genetically Modified Organisms’, The Journal of Environment & Development, 15.1 (2006), 3–21 https://doi.org/10.1177/1070496505285443
Deng, Jianyu, ‘Enhancing Environmental Conservation through the Implementation of GMOs’, MedScien, 1.9 (2024) https://doi.org/10.61173/z026t125
Eckerstorfer, Michael F., Marion Dolezel, Marianne Miklau, Anita Greiter, Andreas Heissenberger, Karen Kastenhofer, and others, ‘Environmental Applications of GM Microorganisms: Tiny Critters Posing Huge Challenges for Risk Assessment and Governance’, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26.7 (2025), 3174 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26073174
Eriksson, Dennis, René Custers, Karin Edvardsson Björnberg, Sven Ove Hansson, Kai Purnhagen, Matin Qaim, and others, ‘Options to Reform the European Union Legislation on GMOs: Risk Governance’, Trends in Biotechnology, 38.4 (2020), 349–51 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2019.12.016
Erol, Ayten, ‘Genetically Modified Foods from Islamic Law Perspective’, Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 34.1 (2021), 3 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-021-09845-4
FAO, ‘CAC/GL 44-2003: Principles for the Risk Analysis of Foods Derived from Modern Biotechnology’, Codex Alimentarius: Foods Derived from Modern Biotechnology, 2009, 1–5 http://www.fao.org/3/a-a1554e.pdf
———, International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management, Art. 1
Fatemehsadat Mirmohammadmakki and Mahmoud Abbasi, ‘Proceedings of the V. Uluslararası Bilim ve İnovasyon Kongresi’, in Cartagena Protocols and Its Importance in Food Safety: A Review (Turkey: Bildiri Kitabı, 2024)
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management (Rome, 2014) https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/3eef65f0-478d-48c1-ac75-43b5f5a2a174
Foote, William E., Jane Goodman-Delahunty, and Gerald Young, ‘Civil Forensic Evaluation in Psychological Injury and Law: Legal, Professional, and Ethical Considerations’, Psychological Injury and Law, 13.4 (2020), 327–53 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-020-09398-3
Foster, Caroline E., ‘Reversing the Burden of Proof to Give Effect to the Precautionary Principle’, in Science and the Precautionary Principle in International Courts and Tribunals: Expert Evidence, Burden of Proof and Finality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 240–78 https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/science-and-the-precautionary-principle-in-international-courts-and-tribunals/reversing-the-burden-of-proof-to-give-effect-to-the-precautionary-principle/1A03BC71CE3A0D1284967980ACFDA78A
Francioni, F., ‘International Human Rights in an Environmental Horizon’, European Journal of International Law, 21.1 (2010), 41–55 https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chq019
Gazala Yasmin Ashraf, ‘GMO : ETHICAL ISSUES IN BIOTECHNOLOGY’, Vidyabharati International Interdisciplinary Research Journal, 2023, 119–23 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/384762294_GMO_ETHICAL_ISSUES_IN_BIOTECHNOLOGY
Gerald C.Nelson, Genetically Modified Organisms in Agriculture: Economics and Politics (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2001) https://shop.elsevier.com/books/subjects/life-sciences/agricultural-and-biological-sciences?page=344
Ghag, Siddhesh B., ‘Genetically Modified Organisms and Their Regulatory Frameworks’, in Global Regulatory Outlook for CRISPRized Plants (Elsevier, 2024), pp. 147–66 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-18444-4.00023-5
Godbey, W T., ‘Transgenics and Genetically Modified Organisms in Agriculture’, in Biotechnology and Its Applications (Elsevier, 2022), pp. 411–28 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817726-6.00018-6
Haag, Maximilian, Steffen Hurka, and Constantin Kaplaner, ‘Policy Complexity and Implementation Performance in the European Union’, Regulation & Governance, 19.3 (2025), 656–74 https://doi.org/10.1111/rego.12580
Hilbeck, Angelika, Rosa Binimelis, Nicolas Defarge, Ricarda Steinbrecher, András Székács, Fern Wickson, and others, ‘No Scientific Consensus on GMO Safety’, Environmental Sciences Europe, 27.1 (2015), 4 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-014-0034-1
Hussin, Mutia Hariati, and Esti Kukuh Perbawati, ‘The Effect of The International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management on the Use of Pesticide in Kerala, India (2003-2017)’, in Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Sustainable Innovation 2020–Social, Humanity, and Education (ICoSIHESS 2020) (Paris, France: Atlantis Press, 2021) https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.210120.123
Ivanova, Angelina, ‘LEGAL REGULATION OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION AND OTHER STATES (USA, CANADA, JAPAN, CHINA): BASIC APPROACHES AND RULES’, Pravovedenie IAZH, 4, 2022, 96–108 https://doi.org/10.31249/rgpravo/2022.04.08
Joginder Singh Duhan, ‘Genetically Modified Crops’, in Bioresources and Ecological Sustainability, 1st edn (Kota: Vital Biotech Publication, 2024)
Kalidasan, V., and Kumitaa Theva Das, ‘Is Malaysia Ready for Human Gene Editing: A Regulatory, Biosafety and Biosecurity Perspective’, Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 9 (2021) https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2021.649203
Khaled Elzoughbi, Agricultural Biotechnology Annual (Dubai, 2024) https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Agricultural+Biotechnology+Annual_Dubai_United+Arab+Emirates_TC2024-0011.pdf
Khater, Maya, and Yassine Chami, ‘Effectiveness of the Legal Framework for Humanitarian Assistance during Armed Conflicts: The Aggression against Lebanon as a Case Study’, Research Journal in Advanced Humanities, 6.1 (2025) https://doi.org/10.58256/caqpva90
Khater, Maya, Yassine Chami, and Mohamad Albakjaji, Legal Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development in the United Arab Emirates, Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System, 2025, V https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v5i2.469
Khater, Maya, Yassine Chami, Dina Imad, Nagwa Abouhaiba, and Zeyad Jaffal, ‘Assessing the Impact of Green Tourism on Sustainable Development: A Case Study of the United Arab Emirates’, Research Journal in Advanced Humanities, 6.2 (2025) https://doi.org/10.58256/0m0wvr07
Komen, John, and David K. Wafula, ‘Authorizing GM Crop Varieties: Policy Implications for Seed Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Agronomy, 11.9 (2021), 1855 https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11091855
Kumar, Arun, and Jay Shankar Singh, ‘Cyanoremediation: A Green-Clean Tool for Decontamination of Synthetic Pesticides from Agro- and Aquatic Ecosystems’, in Agro-Environmental Sustainability (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017), pp. 59–83 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49727-3_4
Liu, Chunyi, ‘Legal Reconstitution of Remedies for Damage Caused by Genetic Pollution’, Open Journal of Social Sciences, 09.02 (2021), 451–67 https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2021.92029
Mammadov, H., and A. Gulamova, ‘Impact of Genetically Modified Organisms on Human Health’, Bulletin of Science and Practice, 11.2 (2025), 145–50 https://doi.org/10.33619/2414-2948/111/18
Miljuš-Đukić and B. Banović Đeri, ‘Civil Liability and Compensation for Damage Caused by Genetically Modified Organisms’, Zbornik Radova Pravnog Fakulteta u Novom Sadu, 55.3 (2021), 783–800 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5937/zrpfns55-33977
Montaguth, Sherly, ‘Genetic Literacy Project’, Seed, Battle over 15-Year GMO Ban Extension Rages in Peru as Farmers Breed and Cultivate Illegal Biotech, 2020 https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2020/12/01/battle-over-15-year-gmo-ban-rages-in-peru-as-farmers-breed-and-cultivate-illegal-biotech-seed/
Mousavian, S-Z, M Safarian, Seyedeh Sany, Zahra Pasdar, and Majid Rezayi, ‘Advancement in Electrochemical DNA Biosensors for GMO Detection: A Review Study’, J. Nutr. Fasting Health, 6.4 (2018), 168–73 https://doi.org/10.22038/JNFH.2018.34319.1138
Mukti, Hudali, and Bobur Baxtishodovich Sobirov, ‘Environmental Justice at the Environmental Regulation in Indonesia and Uzbekistan’, Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System, 3.3 (2023), 476–512 https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v3i3.171
Najicha, Fatma Ulfatun, Mukhlishin Mukhlishin, Supiandi Supiandi, Saparwadi Saparwadi, and Dinil Abrar Sulthani, ‘The Shaping of Future Sustainable Energy Policy in Management Areas of Indonesia’s Energy Transition’, Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System, 3.2 (2023), 362–82 https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v3i2.110
Naumenko, V. D., F. N. Patsyuk, A. I. Yemets, and Y. B. Blume, ‘Development of Biosensor Technologies for the Determination of Genetically Modified Organisms’, Visnik Ukrains’kogo Tovaristva Genetikiv i Selekcioneriv, 22.1–2 (2025), 56–66 https://doi.org/10.7124/visnyk.utgis.22.1-2.1689
Newell, Peter, ‘Globalization and the Governance of Biotechnology’, Global Environmental Politics, 3.2 (2003), 56–71 https://doi.org/10.1162/152638003322068218
Nezhmetdinova, F.T., M.E. Guryleva, and L.D. Kardanova, ‘Risks and Safety Standards for the Use of Genetically Modified Organisms in the Context of Food Security’, ed. by F. Nezhmetdinova, A. Valiev, B. Ziganshin, A. Taylan, and R. Nizamov, BIO Web of Conferences, 161 (2025), 00030 https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/202516100030
Ngongolo, Kelvin, and Gideon S. Mmbando, ‘Necessities, Environmental Impact, and Ecological Sustainability of Genetically Modified (GM) Crops’, Discover Agriculture, 3.1 (2025), 29 https://doi.org/10.1007/s44279-025-00180-0
Nicolia, Alessandro, Alberto Manzo, Fabio Veronesi, and Daniele Rosellini, ‘An Overview of the Last 10 Years of Genetically Engineered Crop Safety Research’, Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 34.1 (2014), 77–88 https://doi.org/10.3109/07388551.2013.823595
Nkhabindze, Bongani Z., Cebisile N. Magagula, Diana Earnshaw, Calsile F. Mhlanga, Sipho N. Matsebula, and Isaac G. Dladla, ‘Regulatory Framework for Genetically Modified Organisms in the Kingdom of Eswatini’, GM Crops & Food, 15.1 (2024), 212–21 https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2024.2375664
Novikova, Ramilya G., ‘Legal Regulation in the Field of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) Turnover in Russia and Foreign Countries’, RUDN Journal of Law, 25.1 (2021), 32–66 https://doi.org/10.22363/2313-2337-2021-25-1-32-66
PAULL, John, ‘THE FAILURES OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOS): RESISTANCE, REGULATION, AND REJECTION’, AGROFOR, 4.3 (2019) https://doi.org/10.7251/AGRENG1903139P
Rakhad Abdulrazak Alrawi, and Rafal Abdulrazak Al-rawi, ‘Facts and Horizons of Genetically Modified Organisms/Foods and Health Issues’, World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 13.2 (2022), 071–075 https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2022.13.2.0040
Roberts, Richard J., and Viviane Naimy, ‘Overcoming Agricultural Challenges with GMOs as a Catalyst for Poverty Reduction and Sustainability in Lebanon’, Sustainability, 15.23 (2023), 16187 https://doi.org/10.3390/su152316187
RS, Iza Rumesten, Mohammad Hidayat Muhtar, Amanda Adelina Harun, Dolot Alhasni Bakung, and Nirwan Junus, ‘Protection of Human Rights Against the Environment in the Indonesian Legal System’, Journal of Law and Sustainable Development, 11.10 (2023), e570 https://doi.org/10.55908/sdgs.v11i10.570
Saltykova, Assia, Julien Van Braekel, Nina Papazova, Marie-Alice Fraiture, Dieter Deforce, Kevin Vanneste, and others, ‘Detection and Identification of Authorized and Unauthorized GMOs Using High-Throughput Sequencing with the Support of a Sequence-Based GMO Database’, Food Chemistry: Molecular Sciences, 4 (2022), 100096 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochms.2022.100096
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, Arts. 1-2
Shooshtari, Azadeh, Zahra Hajatpour, Mohammad Reza Ghaffari, Fatemeh Seraji, and Fatemeh Loni, ‘Awareness of GMOs in Terms of the Iran Biosafety Act: A Case Study of Tehran City’, Heliyon, 10.3 (2024), e25487 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25487
Simone VEZZANI, ‘The International Regulatory Framework for the Use of GMOs and Products Thereof as Food Aid’, European Journal of Risk Regulation, 9.1 (2018), 120–36 https://doi.org/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26408244
Stuart J. Smyth, ‘Regulation of Genome Editing in Plant Biotechnology: The First Decade and Beyond’, Frontiers in Plant Science, 11 (2020), 219 https://www.springerprofessional.de/en/regulation-of-genome-editing-in-plant-biotechnology/17076650
Tsatsakis, Aristidis M., Muhammad Amjad Nawaz, Victor A. Tutelyan, Kirill S. Golokhvast, Olga-Ioanna Kalantzi, Duck Hwa Chung, and others, ‘Impact on Environment, Ecosystem, Diversity and Health from Culturing and Using GMOs as Feed and Food’, Food and Chemical Toxicology, 107 (2017), 108–21 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2017.06.033
Turnbull, Crystal, Morten Lillemo, and Trine A. K. Hvoslef-Eide, ‘Global Regulation of Genetically Modified Crops Amid the Gene Edited Crop Boom – A Review’, Frontiers in Plant Science, 12 (2021) https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.630396
Twardowski, Tomasz, and Aleksandra Małyska, ‘Uninformed and Disinformed Society and the GMO Market’, Trends in Biotechnology, 33.1 (2015), 1–3 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2014.11.006
UAE, Civil Transactions Law (Federal Law No. 5 of 1985) (Abu Dhabi: Ministry of Justice, 1985), Art. 380 https://www.moj.gov.ae/
———, Federal Law by Decree No. 30 of 2021 on Combating Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances, 2021 https://uaelegislation.gov.ae/en/legislations/1540/download
———, Federal Law No. 10 of 2015 Concerning the Food Safety (Abu Dhabi: Official Gazette, 2015) https://uaelegislation.gov.ae/en/legislations/1161/download.
———, Federal Law No. 19 of 2016 on Combating Commercial Fraud (Abu Dhabi: Official Gazette, 2016) https://uaelegislation.gov.ae/en/legislations/1036/download
———, Federal Law No. 24 of 2006 on Consumer Protection (Abu Dhabi: Official Gazette, 2006) https://uaelegislation.gov.ae/en/legislations/1455
———, Federal Law No. 9 of 2020 on the Biosafety of GMOs (UAE, 2020)
UNGUREANU, Ciprian, ‘General Considerations on the Elements of Civil Liability in the Environmental Law’, European Journal of Law and Public Administration, 6.2 (2019), 268–77 https://doi.org/10.18662/eljpa/104
Uslu, Tugce, ‘Advantages, Risks and Legal Perspectives of GMOs in 2020s’, Plant Biotechnology Reports, 15.6 (2021), 741–51 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11816-021-00714-0
Verma, Sunil Kumar, Devendra Singh, Minakshi Pandey, and Prashant Kumar, ‘Genetically Modified Organisms and Environment’, in Climate Change and Sustainable Developments (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2025), pp. 206–27 https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003654438-12
Vuković Domanovac, Marija, Mirela Volf, Monika Šabić Runjavec, and Ivana Terzić, ‘Sustainable and Advanced Strategies for Bioremediation of Highly Contaminated Wastewater’, Processes, 13.7 (2025), 2250 https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072250
Xu, Meng, Ronghui Wang, and Yanbin Li, ‘Electrochemical Biosensors for Rapid Detection of Escherichia Coli O157:H7’, Talanta, 162 (2017), 511–22 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2016.10.050
Xue, Yang, Lijun Shang, and Weiwen Zhang, ‘Building and Implementing a Multi-Level System of Ethical Code for Biologists under the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) of the United Nations’, Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity, 3.2 (2021), 108–19 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2021.09.001
Zhu, Xia, Jianfeng Zhang, Ronghui Pan, Kai Zhang, and Huaxin Dai, ‘CRISPR/Cas12a-Mediated Entropy-Driven Electrochemical Biosensor for Detection of Genetically Modified Maize Mon810’, Analytica Chimica Acta, 1296 (2024), 342290 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2024.342290